Erik Erikson Stages of Human Development Essay

Erik Erikson stages of human development with a particular approach of the Identity crisis of adolescence and implications for youth policy and practice. Erik Erikson`s developmental stages: The Adolescence Identity Crisis approach. â€Å"They say is human to experience a long childhood, but is also civilised to have an even longer childhood as it leads the person to achieve more technical and mental abilities known as virtuoso; at the same time it can also leave a long residue of immaturity and emotional confusion† (Erikson, 1994- Erik Hamburger Erikson, 1902-1994). In the collected works there was a researcher who spent a lot of time studying about human development and his name was Erik Erikson; most of Erikson`s work is based on real life situations such as the war and human depression which could influence the behaviour of one person, the author believed that the culture one individual lives in is also influencing their behaviour as an example of such arguments is Erikson`s study Sioux Indians investigated in a reservation. Erikson argued that the human behaviour is influenced by the body interactions, by the human mind and the overall cultural influences (Marcia, 1966). Erikson developed a theory which states that there are eight major stages in the human development dividing the adulthood developmental stages into young adults, middle age adults and older adults experience. The first stage Erikson described is the Infancy starting from birth up to 18 months also called the Oral Sensory stage and the main concept of the stage is emphasising the importance of love and care given to an infant by their mother as well as the visual contact and touch as the forms of communication and emotional exchange; this stage is also known as â€Å"Trust versus Mistrust† which stands for the infant`s basic needs accomplishment as when the infant`s needs are fulfilled by the mother as the role model the child will form trust and confidence where as if the basic needs such as visual contact are not offered by the mother it can lead the infant to develop mistrust in the closest person due to the lack of positive communication (Oswalt, 1995-2012). The second stage starts at 2 and continues up to 4 years old is also known as the â€Å"Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt† which stands for the fact that the child is actually asking if their person is ok and accepted by the others due to the fact that he starts to explore the close environment and gains motor abilities; at this stage the children are developing their first interests and the parents still play a fundamental role in encouraging and supporting the child`s autonomy and independency skills (Erikson, 1970). The third stage is also known as the Preschool stage â€Å"Initiative versus Guilt† starting at 4 until the child reaches 5 years old and although is a short stage the child development is significant as they start to master the nearest environment by achieving basic learning skills of life for instance the child learns that the things are falling down and not up. At this stage the child develops a certain level of independency and courage but at the same time they can develop some negative behaviour such as frustration, rudeness or aggressive intentions (Erikson, 1993). Between 5 and 12 years old is the stage of â€Å"Industry versus Inferiority† when the child is asking if they have a place in the world and becomes more aware of the fact that they are individuals, become more responsible, start to share more and to cooperate better in certain situations as they understand the meaning and sense of life to a deeper extend, at the same time the child discovers new talents and interests (Erikson, 1980). The fifth stage is the Adolescence starting at 13 up to 19 years old also known as â€Å"Identity versus Role Confusion† which stands for the crisis the teenager might experience when identifying their own personality; it is the most critical period as it could influence the person` s life as it is characterised by confusion in most cases, it will be critically appreciated in the last part of the essay. The sixth stage is the young adulthood starting at 20 up to 40 years old also called â€Å"Intimacy versus Isolation†, period governed by the conflict of love. Although, at this stage the identity crisis is coming to an end, the young adult can isolate because of the intimacy need and the fear of being rejected by the groups, overall the stage refers to the person`s need of finding the right partner for life (Erikson, 1990). The middle adulthood starts at 40 up to 64 years and is also known as â€Å"Generativity versus Stagnation† and is characterised by the adult intention and concern of helping and guiding the younger generation so the main focus of the adult is to contribute towards society development by offering support to the new generation (Erikson, 1980). The last stage described by Erikson is called the late adulthood starting at 65 till death also known as the â€Å"Ego Integrity versus Despair† when the adult is meditating upon their life events and what they have achieved throughout the life, if they realise that their life has been successfully will form integrity if not it can lead to despair and the feeling of failure (Erikson, 1980). One of the Erikson`s most talked stages of human development is the Adolescence which main focus is the teenager`s concern about how they look, how they are interpreted and accepted by their peers, friends and groups (Marcia, 1976). Erikson claims that in the late stage of adolescence the teenager develops a sexual identity which will define them as a person for their future life; the teenager makes a transition from the child to adult life which will actually mark their future roles in the society. The first stage of the transition is marked by the confusion of who the teenager wants to become, who they are at the moment and how will they be accepted by the society as an example of such uncertainty is the teenager`s preoccupation to fit into small jobs, they will try different roles such as babysitting or catering assistants until they will decide what they want to become in the future. Erikson claimed that eventually the teenager achieves a sense of identity but before that there is a crisis and a confusion stage which influences the teenager`s future decisions and interests; the period is critic as it can lead the teenager into bad groups, drugs, violence and other dangers since they are really confused and easy influenced so the parents must support and guide them towards the right path (Marcia, 1980). Erikson believes the transition is marked by the identity crisis which makes the stage unique as it becomes a synthesis of earlier stages and a kind of anticipation for the adulthood life as the youth stage is a bridge between child and adult experience (Fletcher and Branen, 2009). The stage is a radical change in terms of puberty, ability to search and find own life directions, awareness development of the society meanings and roles; the teenager is challenged to establish boundaries for themselves and this is when their identity crisis becomes hard to deal with, but Erikson believes the society will help and guide the adolescent to find their own way by offering different experiences which will impact the teenager`s interests and will define who they want to become as adults(Erikson, 1980). The theorist claims the identity crisis might be prolonged for some individuals due to the society and because it takes time to achieve certain life skills, personal interests and form a clear overview of the adult life, so there is no exact deadline for the teenager to create a life strategy, but Erikson thinks that by the age of 18 to 20 the adolescent must know their own interests and head to a certain direction in life gaining a psychological and social stability (Fletcher and Branen, 2009). Finally, Erikson thinks that the major impact and influence on a teenager identity crisis is the sociological environment the person lives in and the youth culture existing in that specific society, although the youth culture might be particular from a country to another or from a race to another, overall the youth policy needs to be SMART which stands for systematic, measurable, achievable, reliable and time related so that it will help the teenager to establish their own direction more clearly and investigate the opportunities they might have within the adult world (Kail and Cavanaugh, 2004).The way a teenager experiences the transition period impacts the future psychological, sociological and youth developmental skills, so Erikson believes it is fundamental what kind of â€Å"tools† the society and mostly the youth environment offers to the adolescent so they can choose from and establish their future path in terms of career opportunities, personality definition and overall place in the society (Oswalt, 1995-2012). As the essay showed, Erikson made a comprehensive induction in the human developmental stages emphasising the meaning and role of each stage; the infancy is governed by the love and care offered by the mother to the child, as the child grows up they become more independent and, have bigger autonomy but yet they are uncertain about their place in the world as the second stage described, at the age of preschool the child learns the basic skills and define their ego in order to become more responsible with own interests and talents towards the fourth stage. The fifth stage is governed by confusion as is the adolescence identity crisis when the teenager decides their future path, as a young adult the person will be interested in making a family and ensure they are loved; the middle age adult will be concerned in offering guidance, support and advice to the new generation of children but towards the late adult stage we saw that the retired person is concerned about their life events and motivated to meditate upon their life cycle. References: Elkind, D. (2004). Erik Erikson`s Eight Ages of Men. Module III Teaching Supplemental Handouts. Erikson, E. (1970). Reflections on the dissent of contemporary youth. International Journal of Psychoanalysis. 51 (11-12). Erikson, E. (1980). Identity and Life Cycle. New York: WW Norton and Company. Erikson, E. (1993). Childhood and Society. New York: WW Norton and Company, 242. Erikson, E. (1994). Biography: Lecture Notes and Ego Psychologists. PSY (345). Kail, R. and Cavanaugh, J. C. (2004). Human Development: a life span view (3rd Edition). Belmont CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 16. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity statuses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 3 (551-558). Marcia, J. E. (1976). Identity six years after: a follow-up study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 5 (145-160). Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in Adolescence. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. New York: Wiley. Oswalt, A. (1995-2012). Erik Erikson and self identity. Edited by Zupa nick Psychology Department MSW.

Macy’s Inc Case Essay

Analyze the publicly-traded firm Macy’s Inc.; you are to complete a financial analysis. Complete the following steps for this portion of the project: 1. Obtain financial information for your firm for at least a 5 (2008-2012) year time period. This information should include: income statements, balance sheets, cash-flow statements. 2. Provide a brief history of the firm: You will need to do background reading about the firm in order to gain insight into its performance and behavior. Focus this section on the â€Å"who, when, where and what† questions about your firm’s history. 3. Complete financial measures of the firm for a multi-year time period (e.g. 5 years). This should include all measures concerning the income statement, balance sheet, and cash-flow statements. 4. Analysis of the financial performance of the firm. Once all financial measures have been determined, an analysis of this information is crucial to understanding how well the firm is performing and its current state of operations. There will be two components to this analysis: a. End-Point Analysis: Using the end-point methodology described in the document in the Reference Module of the Content Section of the course, compare the firm’s current financial performance to its financial performance in the beginning time frame. Describe, discuss, and analyze the changes you observe. b. Industry Comparison: Obtain current industry data on the various financial measures you have determined for the firm. Compare the performance of the firm to the industry and describe/discuss your results. 5. Summarize your findings. Based on the financial analysis you have just completed, summarize your findings and draw conclusions about the changes in the financial performance/structure of the firm over time and about the current strengths of its operations.

Outline and Evaluate Research Into Types of Attachment Essay

Outline and evaluate research into types of attachment. Ainsworth conducted a study to observe types of attachment behaviours with occur between a mother and a child. She used observation to witness these behaviours. By placing the child in a set up play room with one way glass allowed natural behaviour to be observed without interference from the psychologist. Ainsworth used several situations including a mother a child and a stranger. Firstly the mother and the child entered the room, the child was free to explore whilst the mother sat on a chair and read a magazine, a stranger enters and sits next to the mother, they engage in conversation. The mother leaves, and the child is left alone with the stranger who shall comfort and play with the child. The mother then re-enters, and the stranger leaves. The mother then also leaves, and the child is left alone. The stranger re-enters and the mother re-enter shortly after, and then the stranger leaves again. A problem with the study is it lacks ecological validity; the child may have reacted differently in settings they were familiar with, an example being their own home. The child could already be anxious due to strange surroundings and unusual behaviour by the mother, therefore leading to higher chances of stranger anxiety and other stressful behaviour. Ainsworth in her study found three types of behaviour, these were Type A – Insecure avoidant, Type B – secure and Type C – Insecure resistant. Type A showed the child being upset when mother left the room, but did not seek comfort when she returned and showed little stranger anxiety. Whereas in Type B the child used the mother as a safe base and was free to explore when she was around, showed distress when she left but still seeked comfort when she returned and showed stranger anxiety. Differently in Type C, the child’s behaviour alternated between wanting comfort and wanting space, and appeared to be angry. The psychologist did not follow all the ethical guidelines in this experiment, the child was put under great stress with the mother leaving and returning, and also in the presence of a stranger, upset the child and made it upset. The psychologist must control this by lowering the stressful situations for the child and finding alternatives. Although they did get full consent as mother of the child took part within the study, which made the situation less stressful and made the child more comfortable. Ainsworth study also lacks the explanation of relationships between fathers and siblings, the child may act differently with different people and this lacks validity as it is not a measure of general attachment.

Evaluating service quality and customer satisfaction in a telecom Literature review

Evaluating service quality and customer satisfaction in a telecom company - Literature review Example Does the company follow a strategy in terms of customers’ satisfaction and what are the expectations of the users? Telecommunication service providers contribute considerably to the development initiatives in both developing and developed nations. Owing to the fact that there is stiff competition between different telecommunication providers situated all over the world, the function of customer care has come to be regarded as being one of the factors that determines the level of success enjoyed by telecommunication companies. In addition, many clients of telecommunication providers have knowledge regarding what real quality service is and so their demands have increased. Telecommunication service providers all over the world provide different goods and services for clients in various markets. Business rivalry between different telecommunication firms ensures that there is the best possible customer satisfaction in the provision of the necessary goods and services. According to Yaacob (2010), to continuously supply the best quality service, telecommunication establishments have to look into the extents of customers’ expectations with regard to service quality in different markets. Such information allows telecommunication companies to then tactically plan on how to integrate service quality processes and objectives into the market. Service quality basically refers to the factors that drive customer expectations and define competence along the lines of quality dimensions. According to Yaacob (2010), there are ten factors that customers use to define or grade service quality in most industries. These are tangibles, reliability, communication, responsiveness, security, credibility, courtesy, competence, accessibility and understanding the needs of consumers. Wong, Kong, Liang and Chua (2009) have mentioned a scale that was formed by experts to measure service quality known as SERVQUAL. This is a broad instrument that has been widely used in assessing consumer preferences and satisfaction in past marketing studies. The greatest performance level in top quality service is usually determined by customer expectations. Service quality is deemed to be low when the firm’s performance is below expectation. The SERVQUAL structure is a common analytical instrument used to assess perceived service as well as customer service. Dependability refers to the servicing firm’s capacity to ensure that it meets all its commitments to consumers satisfactorily and on time (Wong, Kong, Liang and Chua 2009). Responsiveness is descriptive of the level to which consumers feel that their service provider is prepared to offer assistance whenever it is required. Assurance has to do with how customers are treated by the workers in the service provider company. It also deals with the service provider personnel’s ability to engender trust in the firm’s clientele. Empathy has to do with the care given to individual customers by the s ervice provider; as well as the extent to which detailed consumer needs and inclinations can be understood and expressed. Tangibility has to do with the evidence of employees, facilities, and communication resources used by the corporation while supplying customers with services. According to Quinn (2012), the idea of meeting and surpassing

Report which critically assesses the reasons for the success or Essay

Report which critically assesses the reasons for the success or failure of an innovation - Essay Example The process of innovation starts when the product is first conceived and moves towards its realisation. This involves a number of factors that are controllable and certain others that are not controllable. Almost all of the controllable factors are internal to the company. These include project management and implementation from ground zero to creating the product with specific advantages. The controllable factors also include the internal knowledge on the product and the product market, the amount of efforts that the company spends in pre-development activities. There are also a number of uncontrollable factors which are primarily external to the company. These include the changes that come about in the market potential for the product, the market itself and the competitor response to the product development. There are also other factors like the capital requirements and the legal factors which could turn out to be very important when the product hits the market. The aim of this paper is to study a product that was launched in the company. This would analyse the various factors that influenced the launch of this product, both controllable and not controllable. This study would also look at the reasons why the product behaved the way it did in the market and what could have been done in order to rectify these conditions. The final deductions are put down under the conclusion while the rest of the paper carries the initial study and analysis. Product The product identified for this purpose is the launch of the Azotobactor bacterial based bio fertilizer by the company that is being considered. The company launched the product in 1998 in the markets of Europe and Latin America after a pro-longed development effort and observation of how agriculture is practiced in those countries. The company has been selling fertilizers for about 25 years prior to that. As an effort towards test marketing the company did sell some of the products in Bio fertilizer range that they have been selling in UK for six months before going for a full fledged launch of these fertilisers. The study is taken up to cover the entire project till the launch was formally completed in 2004 and the product moved into the maintenance mode. Controllable Factors The developments of any of the products have both controllable and not controllable factors influencing them. In order to analyse the effect of these factors, the history behind the product launch has to be taken note of. This product was launched by a chemical fertiliser company as a new entrant into the bio fertiliser market or the organic fertiliser market. With the increasing tendency of making the fields more and more chemical, with both chemical fertilisers and pesticides, the bio fertilisers were looked at as the future fertilisers. It was expected that these would stand the test of time and would be the best regenerative alternate for chemical fertilisers. With this in mind the company embarked on the mission to launch the bio fertilisers in Europe and in the Latin American markets. They were not the first to bring it, though, the rest of the industry that tried did not meet with specific success either. There was also an imminent need that the company also gets into this ban d wagon. There were a number of products which were being called the bio fertiliser

Church In Controversy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Church In Controversy - Essay Example First, the author lays bare the flaws in the arguments for the proponents of women ordination; to do this, the author clearly explains how the arguments of the proponents of women ordination in the Catholic Church is not based on Scriptures or any Theological knowledge. Secondly, the author explains how women ordination would change the iconography of worship, making Christians to have a different view of God and a different understanding of the relationship of Jesus Christ with the Church. And lastly, the author explains how the priesthood of women is opposed to the sacramental nature of the priesthood.The author has really convinced me to accept his thesis. The main reason why I am convinced that the author’s thesis is true is that the author’s arguments demonstrate, in very clear terms, that the ordination of women is inconsistent with the Christian understanding of the relationship between Jesus Christ and the Church; also, the author has demonstrated in this articl e that ordination of women is, indeed, not compatible with the sacramental nature of priesthood. In my view, the author has not left out any important point, or any important fact or argument that is opposed to his viewpoint on this topic.The following two relevant historical and cultural circumstances can help us to understand the author's point better. First of all, the author is writing in the contemporary world where the culture of relativism and skepticism seems to characterize the people's general approach to life.

Kalaipahoa, Poison God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Kalaipahoa, Poison God - Essay Example The tree from which the woodcarving came was called the Kalaipahoa tree and perhaps this is where the name of the Hawaiian god Kalaipahoa originated. Certainly, Kalaipahoa, Poison God is a work of art at least going by the principles and elements of art. Perhaps it is appropriate to start by mention the fact that the Hawaiians produced this piece of art in order to construct their identity when it came to worship and other religious issues. This meant that the people of Hawaii in used to worship their god in a unique way that no other ethnic group did. This was particularly so in the sense that the Hawaiians had a sense of identity in their god of poison while other tribes worshipped their gods in the mountains and the oceans. Additionally, the Hawaiians constructed their god with human hair thus they strategically essentialized themselves to survive their cultural identity and draw more powerful supernatural support since its style, iconography, and underline message conveyed such. When it comes to the background of the work, the Hawaiian woodcarvers constructed the pieces of art for religious purposes and they made sure that Kalaipahoa was carved out of the Kalaipahoa tree that was considered very poisonous to humans. Mainly, the tree was collected from Molokai Island before being transported to the woodcarvers. Essentially, the people of Hawaii were well versed with all kinds of poisonous trees and they put this knowledge into good use by utilizing it in wars and in worship. Although the Kalaipahoa tree was very famous for its medicinal value, its poisonous nature proved to be unbearable at times and could kill humans within seconds of inhalation or contact. Finally but equally important, it is worthy to note that Kameharnehas poison-god, who was also called Kalai-pahoa, was a female carved out of wood with human hair. Her facial expression depicted anguish with one eye shut whiles the other one wide open. She seemed to be looking at the

U3 Discussion Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

U3 Discussion - Coursework Example One can include or remove numerous group members, define various characteristics, configure exchange attributes and do bulk import from a CSV file at a single case. To comprehend the essential standards of access control, it is important to see how the accompanying terms are characterized in the setting of the right to gain entrance control model for Windows XP Professional. Each record is issued a SID when it is made. Access control instruments in Windows XP Professional recognize security principals by SID as opposed to by name. Data that depicts a specific security centrals character and abilities on a machine. In Windows XP Professional, all clients in an association exist in a particular security connection that is reclassified each time they log on. The security subsystem utilizes the security setting to figure out what a methodology and its strings of execution can do to protests on the machine, and who will be considered responsible for what they have done. An information structure containing the SID for a security vital, Sides for the gatherings that the security primary fits in with, and a rundown of the security chiefs rights on the nearby machine. A right to gain entrance token is made for each security central that logs on provincially at the machine or remotely through a system association. Each one procedure has an essential access token that it inherits naturally from its making methodology. The right to gain entrance token gives a security connection to the security centrals activities on the machine. It additionally gives a security setting to any application strings that follow up for the security chiefs benefit. Amasses that can be utilized to arrange clients and space objects, along these lines streamlining organization. Security gatherings permit you to allot the same security consents to substantial quantities of clients, for example, workers in a

Fundamentals of Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Fundamentals of Finance - Essay Example Photos: Interior view of one of the master bedrooms showing a spacious area within the room. The outside view of the property showing a cultivated front yard suited with garbage cans and showing spacious distance from one property block to the next. The arrangement of the apartments allows a personal parking lot to the front and a walk through pavement connecting from the main residential interstate roads. Weblink: www.rightmove.co.uk/property-for-sale/property-41518172.html# Purchasing Price: ?59,500 The annual cash flows expected from the investment target is ?850 per calendar month as the area has competitive rental market given that area is spacious and secluded from industrial zones, hence fore, investors in this area are driven by the market valuation of the properties as well as the location which raises the expected valuation of the property to be higher than the market price. The market price of the same property along the Greater Manchester area is set at ?650 with regards to the proximity of properties and roads, shopping malls, security of the area, and demand and supply of rental properties along the same area. However the expected rental amount from this particular property is ?850 as the property is new, all its features are functional and the seclusion from the industrial areas makes the property higher valued than its market competition counterparts. Therefore, for Mr. Priddin to invest in this property, his annual cash flows are calculated as Annual Cash Flows Expected Investment Target: ?850 Per Calendar Month (PCM) = (?850 x 12) = ?10,200 The rationale of providing rental service for ?850 per month is because; after investigating the rental prices for 2 bedroom flats and apartments around the Little Lever Bolton within the Greater Manchester area, it is found out those property rentals per calendar month range from ?150-700 with regards to conditions and luxury facilities. With regards to the presence of communal gardens and the easy access to ground floor apartments, the prices for these properties are kept higher than the market price at either the threshold of ?700 PCM or above at ?1000. With Mr. Priddin expecting a 6% return on investment, the future value of the property is calculated as Perpetuity = (Rental Price x Months in a year)/r Therefore, If Mr. Priddin is to purchase this property at ?59,500 his annual returns would be Perpetuity = (850*12 months)/r = 10,200/0.06 = ?170,000 Hence fore, the present value of the future cash flows of ?170,000 is higher than the current selling price of ?59,500 and is therefore a good investment for Mr. Priddin to invest in. A) If as a landlord Mr. Priddin would like to keep this property and rent it forever raising the rent at the rate of 4%, is it advisable for Mr. Priddin to purchase this property? Then Using P = Co*(1+g)/r-g his return on investment would be calculated with regards to the purchase price of the property C0 divided by the difference between the return on in vestment and expected less the rate of rent increase per year. P = C1/r-g P = 59500/6% - 4% P = ?2,975,000 With respect to the present value of the future cash flows of ?2,975,000 the purchase price of the property is lower and therefore the property is still worth buying. The difference between the present value of the property and the future cash f

American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA) and Violence Against Literature review

American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA) and Violence Against Women in US - Literature review Example In this paper, therefore, the dynamics of violence against women will be judged with reference to socio-economic pattern of the USA. In Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, the United Nations (1993) defined violence as â€Å"any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion, or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life† (Article 1). Decoding this definition reveals the fact that violence against women includes all types of physical, verbal and sexual assaults that can cause harm to the physical body, sense of trust, of liberty and that of private life of women (Runyan & Peterson, 2013; Alhabib, Nur & Jones, 2010). In the USA, the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) was established in 1994 in order to create a protective shield, restricting rise in violence against women in the country. The VAWA (1994) defined violence as the exertion of any physical force intended to cause an injury or abuse to women. Such definitions ar e applicable regardless of nationality, age, racial orientation and ethnicity of women. In the USA, more than 2 million women are either physically assaulted or raped by their intimate partners (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000; Matthews, 2004; Grovert, 2008). Alhabib, Nur, and Jones (2010) found that â€Å"the lifetime prevalence of domestic violence† changes significantly with that of geographic locations across the USA. For example, â€Å"the lifetime prevalence of domestic violence† is just 1.9% in Washington, while it is more than 68% in case of countryside in the USA. In the context of the USA, physical violence is probably the most common type of violence that is committed against women (Turner, 2002). In case of physical violence, one person intentionally hurts physical parts of woman that can cause outcomes such as, murder, femicide

The Case of the Test Market Toss-up Essay Example for Free

The Case of the Test Market Toss-up Essay In this case, the top management put the new frozen dessert Sweet Dream on ice; however, the product manager felt it was not a correct decision and tried to persuade the top managers to reconsider. The company of Paradise Foods didn’t realize the threat on LaTreat and the opportunities on Sweet Dream. They didn’t embrace the concept of using analytical marketing research based on computer technologies as the premise of the right decision. The issues are: 1. The research data on Sweet Dream seemed to steal the share from LaTreat. 2.  The top managers didn’t really understand the meaning of the analytical numbers which Bill got from the marketing research and only considered that the return was low so that decided to stop Sweet Dream and try another new concept. 3. The company didn’t recognize the threat on LaTreat and the chance of Sweet Dream; Bill has cleared up the data that the sales of LaTreat was only on promotion and was interested in persuading the committee to continue Sweet Dream. The company should put the position of LaTreat in perspective and distinguish the different positioning of LaTreat and Sweet Dream. According to the â€Å"Product Life Cycle†, LaTreat has already been in the area of maturation and the company should launch a new product or exploit a new market to make more profit. Moreover, the company should adjust the promotion of LaTreat in case that the strategy of lower prices would ruin the value of the brand. In contrast, the product manager should do a simple and easy understanding report to the top managers because of the communications difficulties and related misunderstandings. LaTreat was the first â€Å"super premium† in the Paradise Foods’ history. As more and more new entrants enter the frozen specialties market, the competition has stiffened. The demand of LaTreat is getting saturation, so the market needs another new product, or the sales would be down sooner or later. The 18 months trial of Sweet Dream has gotten a considerable data that Sweet Dream would be a promising product. If Paradise Foods cuts down this new product, other companies will take over it and make it a significant profit which will take the share of Paradise Foods. LaTreat and Sweet Dream were different products that the ingredients and functions are different. Although there was some shifting from LaTreat to Sweet Dream, the two products are not the cannibalization that if Sweet Dream is facing to the present market which would be the product development strategy or if it is facing to the new market which would be the diversification strategy. Besides, the company had used the inappropriate promotion which brought the customers into the price-sensitive types that would decrease the value of brand and the loyalists. Paradise Foods has used the advanced computer-based research services to do the marketing analysis of Sweet Dream and it also has planned two different areas with different advertising and promotion strategies. However, the Sweet Dream product manager, Bill has made a complex report in 40 pages which has lead to the little interest and patience for the top managers to read and understand; and the committee only see that Sweet Dream didn’t produce the revenues they want. Furthermore, Bill hasn’t analyzed the situation of LaTreat at the beginning which would make the top managers recognize the threat of LaTreat and support the necessary and feasibility of the new product. Besides, if the company wants to try another concept of the new product, it will take more time than Sweet Dream which will let another competitor win the first chance. In addition, the promotion in LaTreat has made it be a price-sensitive product and the company has kept the profits and sales by shifting print and TV money into coupons and rebates which was not a long-term strategy. There are two alternatives to deal with this case. One alternative is to accept the decision made by the top management: shut down Sweet Dream, try another new concept and adjust the promotion strategy of LaTreat. Changing the promotion of LaTreat would make the product life cycle longer in order to keep it in making profits. However, trying another new concept will take a long time to realize and it has the indeterminate potential risk to success or failure. Besides, the time is also another key to be successful that the longer it takes, the more risk it will be defeated. The other alternative is to make another report combined with the analytical research of LaTreat in an easy understanding way in order to make sure the top managers know what the numbers mean and do the best to persuasive the top managers to reconsider. Because it did well in Midland and Pittsfield and it just needs some adjustments that will be successful. Moreover, it saves time and start another profit line in Paradise Foods. The company should choose the latter alternative. Sweet Dream is not a totally failure and it did well in Midland and Pittsfield. In contrast, LaTreat is tiring out and is only surviving on promotions; in addition, the loyalists of LaTreat were shrinking. LaTreat is a weakening brand; while, sweet dream would be a strong brand if it is allowed to survive. The company can take three steps to measure the success of Sweet Dream. First of all, it should meet the hurdle rate within six months. Moreover, it should take some proportion of Paradise Foods and also reach the level which can be compared with the level of LaTreat’s profits. Finally, the proportion of Sweet Dream and LaTreat has been changed that Sweet Dream makes more profits than LaTreat.

Far from the madding crowd Essay Example for Free

Far from the madding crowd Essay Roles of women in the Victorian times were very limited compared to now. They were expected to be house wives, and never expected to have an opinion or point of view. They were never in control of anything and everything was decided by men. They were usually expected to take care of everything in the house including looking after children. They were very much expected to be women whose life revolved around the domestic sphere of the home and family. However, this role was challenged by Queen Victoria In the novel Far From the Madding Crowd you see Bathsheba and Fanny breaking the norms expected from women in Victorian times. Sometimes these norm-breaking actions would result in a sever consequence depending on how bad the norm-breaking was. However, sometimes these limits which exist were ignored, but no penalty was paid. In chapter 42 Bathsheba opens the coffin in which Fanny and her baby lay. Here you can see an example of a woman crossing the barrier of what was expected from her, but no penalty being paid. She is very insecure as weather to open the coffin or leave it closed. If I could only look in upon you for one little minute I should know all She finally does open the coffin and is slightly relieved that her tension and suspense has come to an end. It was best to know the worst, and I know it now. She is in a lot of pain, because she now knows that it was the women that Troy loved. She realises that it is his baby and is shocked when Troy says to her that he will never love her like he loved Fanny. Bathsheba also realises that Troy has slept with Fanny out of marriage, which was a very unacceptable action in Victorian times. She does not wish to pursue or debate with Troy about what he has done, because there are risks of other people finding out and this would bring shame to her self-image. The consequences of Troys actions would mean that people would look at them badly and want nothing to do with them. In a way, Fanny paid the price for a highly thought sinful act, and through death. Many Victorian readers wouldve been shocked at Bathshebas actions when she opens the coffin and also with Troys actions. Bathsheba is obviously troubled and disturbed; otherwise she would never have opened the coffin. You can see that she is showing her true emotions and in Victorian times women never showed their true emotions. Bathshebas actions for opening the coffin would not have been a very severe punishment but would be frowned upon by many Victorians. In chapter 13, the expected roles of women are transgressed when Bathsheba and Liddy play the game of the Bible and key. Did you ever find out, miss, who you are going to marry by means of the Bible and key? Many Victorian women would think it a very foolish game to play, therefore, not expected from women. This chapter is an example of a woman crossing the barrier of her expected role, but nothing happening and therefore no consequence. In chapter 11, fanny pays a visit to Troy; however, she travels a very long distance to do this. It was very unusual in Victorian times and nowadays that a woman should travel for miles and miles by foot to visit their loved ones. This wasnt considered very lady-like, and was looked as desperate. It could also have been seen as chasing him around, therefore not being a proper Lady. To make matters worse, Troy dismisses her abruptly which shows a lot of disrespect for Fanny. But Fanny doesnt acknowledge this and we can see that she is a weak character. There was a tone in the woman which is not that of the wife, and there was a manner in the man which is rarely a husband. Fannys actions may also have come down to her social class. Her ways of thinking may have also been completely different to that of an upper class. However, the boundaries of what was expected from women was the same throughout social class. But some may have broken these boundaries with no consequence. You can see now that if the boundaries are taken too far the consequences are drastic and sever. However, sometimes they are ignored or they are hidden. Fanny ignored these boundaries and paid the penalty. Bathsheba did step over the line, but never did ignore the extreme limitations. The women in the novel are defined by how they are seen to everyone else. Some Victorian women would not abide by the rules that were set for them, and some would, either out of fear of what would happen to them if they didnt or they didnt want to feel sinful.

Overview of Cytokinins (CK)

Overview of Cytokinins (CK) FARA SHAKEEL CYTOKININS: Cytokinins (CK) are a class of plant growth substances (phytohormones) that promote cell division, or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots. They are involved primarily in cell growth and differentiation, but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth, and leaf senescence. STRUCTURE OF CYTOKININS: NATURE OF CYTOKININS: Cytokinins are compounds with a structure resembling adenine which promote cell division and have other similar functions to kinetin. Kinetin was the first cytokinin discovered and so named because of the compounds ability to promote cytokinesis (cell division). Though it is a natural compound, It is not made in plants, and is therefore usually considered a synthetic cytokinin (meaning that the hormone is synthesized somewhere other than in a plant). The most common form of naturally occurring cytokinin in plants today is called zeatin which was isolated from corn (Zea mays) Cytokinins have been found in almost all higher plants as well as mosses, fungi, bacteria, and also in tRNA of many prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Today there are more than 200 natural and synthetic cytokinins combined. Cytokinin concentrations are highest in meristematic regions and areas of continuous growth potential such as roots, young leaves, developing fruits, and seeds (Arteca, 1996; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). HISTORY OF CYTOKININS: In 1913, Gottlieb Haberlandt discovered that a compound found in phloem had the ability to stimulate cell division (Haberlandt, 1913). In 1941, Johannes van Overbeek discovered that the milky endosperm from coconut also had this ability. He also showed that various other plant species had compounds which stimulated cell division (van Overbeek, 1941). In 1954, Jablonski and Skoog extended the work of Haberlandt showing that vascular tissues contained compounds which promote cell division (Jablonski and Skoog, 1954). The first cytokinin was isolated from herring sperm in 1955 by Miller and his associates (Miller et al., 1955). This compound was named kinetin because of its ability to promote cytokinesis. Hall and deRopp reported that kinetin could be formed from DNA degradation products in 1955 (Hall and deRopp, 1955). The first naturally occurring cytokinin was isolated from corn in 1961 by Miller (Miller, 1961). It was later called zeatin. Almost simultaneous w ith Miller Letham published a report on zeatin as a factor inducing cell division and later described its chemical properties (Letham, 1963). It is Miller and Letham that are credited with the simultaneous discovery of zeatin. Since that time, many more naturally occurring cytokinins have been isolated and the compound is ubiquitous to all plant species in one form or another (Arteca, 1996; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). BIOSYNTHESIS AND METABOLISM: Cytokinin is generally found in higher concentrations in meristematic regions and growing tissues. They are believed to be synthesized in the roots and translocated via the xylem to shoots. Cytokinin biosynthesis happens through the biochemical modification of adenine. The process by which they are synthesized is as follows (McGaw, 1995; Salisbury and Ross, 1992): A product of the mevalonate pathway called isopentyl pyrophosphate is isomerized. This isomer can then react with adenosine monophosphate with the aid of an enzyme called isopentenyl AMP synthase. The result is isopentenyl adenosine-5-phosphate (isopentenyl AMP). This product can then be converted to isopentenyl adenosine by removal of the phosphate by a phosphatase and further converted to isopentenyl adenine by removal of the ribose group. Isopentenyl adenine can be converted to the three major forms of naturally occurring cytokinins. Other pathways or slight alterations of this one probably l ead to the other forms. Degradation of cytokinins occurs largely due to the enzyme cytokinin oxidase. This enzyme removes the side chain and releases adenine. Derivitives can also be made but the pathways are more complex and poorly understood. TRANSPORT: via xylem (transpiration stream) in peas, a signal from the leaves may signal/regulate transport of cytokinins from the roots zeatin ribosides are the main transport form; converted to the free base or glucosides in the leaves some cytokinin also moves in the phloem. Mode of action: The ratio of auxin to cytokinin plays an important role in the effect of cytokinin on plant growth. Cytokinin alone has no effect on parenchyma cells. When cultured with auxin but no cytokinin, they grow large but do not divide. When cytokinin is added, the cells expand and differentiate. When cytokinin and auxin are present in equal levels, the parenchyma cells form an undifferentiated callus. More cytokinin induces growth of shoot buds, while more auxin induces root formation. Cytokinins are involved in many plant processes, including cell division and shoot and root morphogenesis. They are known to regulate axillary bud growth and apical dominance. The direct inhibition hypothesis posits that these effects result from the cytokinin to auxin ratio. This theory states that auxin from apical buds travels down shoots to inhibit axillary bud growth. This promotes shoot growth, and restricts lateral branching. Cytokinin moves from the roots into the shoots, eventually signaling lateral bud growth. Simple experiments support this theory. When the apical bud is removed, the axillary buds are uninhibited, lateral growth increases, and plants become bushier. Applying auxin to the cut stem again inhibits lateral dominance. While cytokinin action in vascular plants is described as pleiotropic, this class of plant hormones specifically induces the transition from apical growth to growth via a three-faced apical cell in moss protonema. This bud induction can be pinpointed to differentiation of a specific single cell, and thus is a very specific effect of cytokinin. Cytokinins have been shown to slow aging of plant organs by preventing protein breakdown, activating protein synthesis, and assembling nutrients from nearby tissues. A study that regulated leaf senescence in tobacco leaves found that wild-type leaves yellowed while transgenic leaves remained mostly green. It was hypothesized that cytokinin may affect enzymes that regulate protein synthesis and degradation. CHEMISTRY: A. General adenine derivatives (amino purines) occur as: (a) the free nitrogenous base; (b) a nucleoside (base + ribose); (c) a nucleotide (base + ribose + phosphate); or (d) glycosides The free base is the active form. approximately 40 different structures known. Zeatin (Z), which was first isolated from maize (Zea mays) is the most common cytokinin. Other naturally occurring cytokinins include, dihydrozeatin (DHZ) and isopentenyladenosine (IPA). B. Synthetic cytokinins kinetin – probably byproduct of zeatin degradation there are several other substances with cytokinin activity such as benzyl adenine (benzylaminopurine; BA). C. Cytokinins and nucleic acids can occur as a modified base in tRNA, but the bases exist in the cis form, rather than the typical trans form. These modified bases that are found in all organisms from bacteria to plants to humans. The function of the tRNA cytokinins is not clear, but after hydrolysis of the tRNA the products can act as a cytokinin. The importance of the tRNA derived cytokinins in overall growth and development is not clear, either. Interestingly plants have different sets of tRNA’s with different cytokinins that participate in protein synthesis in the cytoplasm and the plastids. CYTOKININS FUNCTION: A list of some of the known physiological effects caused by cytokinins are listed below. The response will vary depending on the type of cytokinin and plant species (Davies, 1995; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). Stimulates cell division. Stimulates morphogenesis (shoot initiation/bud formation) in tissue culture. Stimulates the growth of lateral buds-release of apical dominance. Stimulates leaf expansion resulting from cell enlargement. May enhance stomatal opening in some species. Promotes the conversion of etioplasts into chloroplasts via stimulation of chlorophyll synthesis ROLE OF CYTOKININS IN PLANTS: Cytokinins are known from cytokinin-overproducing mutants to produce additional leaves and branches on the stem. The stems and leaves produce additional chlorophyll. Wounding often produces a new branch. Leaf senescence is delayed. Apical dominance is released. Cuttings produce adventitious roots slowly and require additional auxin to reliably root. Tumors may form at nodes. The results of applied cytokinins could include release of apical dominance as you demonstrated in kidney beans in laboratory. Cytokinins regulate the cell cycle as we learned early in the semester. Cytokinins delay senescence. You carried out this project at home with isolated wheat primary leaf tips in various solutions of plant hormones. Those treated with cytokinins should have demonstrated delayed senescence (stayed green longer). Of course, remember the auxin dose responsethere is such a thing as too much of a good thing! Cytokinins cause nutrient diversion. Cytokinin-treated leaves become sinks for nutrients such as amino acids. This is shown in a classic experiment in plant physiology CYTOKININS CONJUGATION: As you can see in the diagram below, the natural cytokinin ribosides can be attached to sugars to form glycosides that have reduced or no cytokinin activity. The plant also can produce enzymes to cleave the sugar and restore full cytokinin activity. Thus conjugation with sugars and retrieval from these bound forms is a possible pathway in plant cells. However, it is also true that the ribosides themselves are a form of conjugation. All studies to date seem to indicate that the free-base has to be cleaved from the ribose too before the compound has any true activity. Plants carry out this reaction easily and rapidly, so ribosides appear to have activity on their own, but this is an artifact. Cells in culture require the cytokinin to be freethese sometimes lack the enzymes to cleave the ribose, so supplied ribosides are inactive and the free-base must be supplied in the medium. The native cytokinins also occur as modified bases in RNA and DNA strands. In fact cis-zeatin (a less active form) is found in many tRNA molecules in almost all living cells of all species! The extent to which the free cytokinin pool is altered by conjugation with other nucleotides or released from nucleotide polymers is not clear. CYTOKININS DEGRADATION: In addition to synthesis and conjugation, the pools of cytokinins can be altered by degradation. Below is how one natural cytokinin is made inactive: REFERENCES http://www.plant-hormones.info/cytokinins.htm Kieber JJ (March 2002). Tribute to Folke Skoog: Recent Advances in our Understanding of Cytokinin Biology. J. Plant Growth Regul. 21 (1): 1–2. doi:10.1007/s003440010059. PMID11981613. Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa Andrea.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven Alexander.; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert Bradley (2008). Biology (8th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson, Benjamin Cummings. pp.827–30. Chen CM, Ertl JR, Leisner SM, Chang CC (July 1985). GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY,LAHOREPage 1

Comparing The Element of Style and Style Toward Clarity and Grace :: Compare Contrast Comparison

Comparing The Element of Style and Style Toward Clarity and Grace Stylish writing has never been much of an issue before reading Strunk and White and Williams. I personally would interpret style as being an individual refection of one’s self. In reading â€Å"The Element of Style† and â€Å"Style Toward Clarity and Grace† I learned that style isn’t necessarily just a reflection of an individual’s style but it is also how the many rules to writing are used when composing a piece. In Strunk, White and Williams’ attempts to educate formal writers on how to write stylish, understandably, and within the rules, they give great examples of the usage of correct grammar, composition, and words and expressions. The authors of both books agree that there are rules to follow when writing a good or stylish paper and that most or all of the rules need to be followed in order for your piece to be a success. I do believe that Williams was a bit more lenient with the rules though. While Strunk and White seemed to be saying these are the rules follow them or else, Williams seems to be saying, these are the rules follow them but not so much so as to loose your own style. One Rule imposed by Strunk and White that really stood out for me is â€Å"Do not explain too much†. (75) Strunk and White state that it is seldom advisable to tell all. My problem with this is, when an author is writing his/her objective is generally to explain something or to tell a story and without stating the obvious what actually is too much explaining. Strunk and White were a bit vague on this subject as they were when they said, â€Å"Be clear† and â€Å"Do not inject opinion†(79). Two subjects that are understandable but I don’t feel were explained in enough detail. Both authors address style from different perspectives but ultimately there are more similarities than differences in the two books, besides the fact that they are both defining style, they give somewhat similar accounts as to what they feel style is. In Williams’ Cohesion chapter he emphasizes that to solve the problem with obtaining clarity when writing is to discover how, without sacrificing local clarity, we can shape sentences to fit their context and to reflect those larger intentions that motivate us to write in the first place (45).

The Role of Women in America Essay -- Womens Studies

The Role of Women in America In her essay, â€Å"Housewives and Homework: The Lacemakers of Narsapur,† Chandra Talpade Mohanty focused on how men sold products that women produced and profited from women’s work. The essay basically pointed out how work can be defined according to sexual identity. It made me wonder if American women are still perceived by men in society as being housewives even though some of us are doctors, lawyers, teachers etc. Is the work that women do seen as what Mohanty pointed out in her essay as â€Å"leisure time activities†? I think that to some extent men believe that women’s sole purpose on Earth is to be their wives/partners and to be good mothers to their children. Even though we â€Å"leisurely,† as Mohanty so plainly categorized our work according to men in India, go out to our different careers or occupations everyday, we are not truly seen as providers or given credit for being part providers for the family. Some men may feel that we pu t forth more of an effort in being a woman who cleans the house, cooks, and takes care of the children. Maybe our â€Å"le...

The Effects of Nature and Nurture on Shaping of Behavior Essay

The Effects of Nature and Nurture on Shaping of Behavior The nature/nurture investigation has been studied for many years by psychologists and it is a subject that is still in debate today. It brings up the question, how is our behaviour shaped, and the two sides of the answer are nature and nurture. Behaviour in the context of a human being can be described as; the way humans act and think in situations. What is meant by nature and nurture? Nature is the word used to describe the biological aspects that shape behaviour, for example genes. Nurture is the word used to describe the social aspects that shape behaviour, for example interaction with parents. This essay will cover both sides of the argument referring to psychological theory. To start with the psychodynamic theory, this is defined, according to Dictionary.com as â€Å"The interaction of various conscious and unconscious mental or emotional processes, especially as they influence personality, behaviour, and attitudes†. This is a theory used on the side ...

Managing the Total Marketing Effort

Product: An established beverage manufacturer is introducing a completely new product – flavored milk beverages. The target market is 6-12 years old.   Ã‚  The product is being launched nationwide and that the retail price, which has been set based on research done, is a dollar per 240ml carton.   The cartons are being sold to retail outlets for $0.80. Conducting an accurate break-even analysis requires a careful examination and study of costs and prices in your business. (entrepreneur.com, 2006) Financials & Controls: a. Cost of the project All aspects of the cost of manufacture must be taken into account in order to accurately estimate the total cost of the project.   Let’s say hypothetically that 100,000 cartons are being manufactured, and that cost of making the milk is $5,000, bearing in mind that flavorings, preservatives and sugar is added to dairy milk to make it flavored. Additional costs pertaining to this include packaging, which comes to an amount of $15,000, cost of labeling is $5,000 and distribution to 10,000 retail outlets across the country is going to cost approximately $15,000.   In addition to this advertising is estimated to cost approximately $25,000. Bearing all this in mind, the total cost for 100,000 cartons comes to $65,000. b. Revenue forecast It is estimated based on market research done that 90% of the product will sell, with the main target market being six to 12 year olds.   From this we can deduce that e 10% of the total amount of product manufactured will spoil or be damaged. Given that the price for each carton is $1, and that total cost of production and distribution is $65,000, and further that $80,000 will be expected to be generated by sales to retailers, this means that the manufacturer will generate $15,000 of profit per 1000,000 cartons of flavored milk. Part 2 Marketing strategies Marketing is this is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to satisfy customers (CFDC, 2006). This paper assesses which marketing strategy would best suit the project by comparing two marketing mediums, television and print, in a newspaper. Pros of television marketing TV marketing allows strategies such as immediate entry into a person’s lounge, repetition and the drumming of the message into those on the receiving end.   Targeting can be done in a variety of ways – the number of times the advert is repeated, the time it is played and the program it is played during can all impact on the message the advert is trying to bring across.   The same advert can be distributed among a variety of channels.   The impact is subconscious.   Statistics also show that more children are watching TV in the afternoons than ever before.   Advertisers using the medium of TV have many options. Cons of television marketing It is expensive, and much of its impact is lost when people hop between channels. Pros of newspaper marketing The advert is physical and can be seen time and time again and referred back to by the person.   Some targeting can be done: size and placing in the paper can be determined, and the type of paper, such as business, youth, etc., can be determined.   A paper can be in print, or online. Cons of newspaper marketing The advert may not be noticed or read by the target audience, and the marketer has no control over who reads the paper.   Online adverts can be slow to download and can irritate the consumer. I believe that television marketing is still the most effective form of marketing. References CFDC, 2006, â€Å"Glossary of Business Terms† retrieved 15 May 2006 Entrepreneur.com, 2006 â€Å"Conducting a Break Even Analysis† retrieved 15 May 2006 from the website http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/0,4621,318052,00.html

Japanese Employment Practices

|International EMPLOYMENT RELATIONS | |TO WHAT EXTENT THE JAPANESE EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES HAS CHANGED AFTER THE ECONOMIC CRISIS? | | |[pic] | | | |SINTHIA NOVA | |Student ID – 2724881 | |14th May 2009 | Table of Contents INTRODUCTION3 TRADITIONAL JAPANESE MODEL OF EMPLOYMENT SYSTEM4 THE CHANGING NATURE OF JAPANESE EMPLOYMENT SYSTEM5 1. Sources of change5 2. Lifetime employment6 3. Seniority-based Pay and Promotion System7 4. Enterprise Unions9 CONCLUSION9 REFERENCES10 INTRODUCTION In the post-war period, Japanese manufacturing companies significantly increased their share of the global market of automobiles (Automotive News-Market Data Book, quoted in Womack, Jones, and Roos 1991, 69) as well as achieving more than 50 percent of the world markets in cameras, video recorders, watches, calculators, microwave ovens, motorcycles, and colour televisions (Oliver and Wilkinson 1992, 5). Much of this success was attributed to the forms of human-resource Management found in Japanese companies (Abegglen and Stalk 1987; Clark 1987; Dore 1990; Tachibanaki and Noda 2000). However, during the period of Asian Financial crisis and economic recession for most of the 1990s, the typical Japanese features that supported comparatively high performance until the late 1980s came in for severe criticism. Considering the high performance of the US economy in the 1990s, Neoliberals, based on the universal relevance of liberal markets, argue that the Japanese model is dead, and that Japan must (and will) adopt the US liberal market model (Lindsey and Lukas, 1998; Lin, 2001; Dornbusch, 1998; Krugman, 1996). By contrast, many theorists of institutionalism, based on contextualized efficiency and path-dependent national patterns, claim that Japan continues its path-dependent national model due to its unique culture – taken for granted within the culture – the interconnectedness of institutions and agents’ efforts to utilize the comparative advantages of their institutions (Dore, 2000; Green, 2001; Isogai et. al. , 2000; Chesbrough, 1998; DiMaggio and Powell, 1983; Hall and Soskice, 2001). However, neither the neoliberals’ argument for simple convergence towards a liberal market economy nor the institutionalists’ claim for the continuation of the original Japanese model can explain the dynamic changes happening within the Japanese model at the turn of the century. In this report, the recent trends of Japanese employment relations will be examined. Two questions have been addressed here. First, why the traditional Japanese employment system has been changed. Second, to what extent has ER system has been changed? To answer these questions we will first examine the traditional Japanese model and then after considering some issues relating to the reasons of this change, we will analysis the current trends to find out the extent of modification in a number of typical ER practices. A discussion of the implications of these changes is then be presented, followed by the conclusion. TRADITIONAL JAPANESE MODEL OF EMPLOYMENT SYSTEM Japan is a complex, dynamic society that has undergone enormous change in the past 125 years, converting itself from a feudal state into a modern industrialized nation and an economic superpower. In doing so, the Japanese have been able to copy Western technology, science, education and politics, while still keeping their unique cultural identity. One distinct feature of Japan that separated it from other Asian countries was it collective culture which has been carried over to the companies (Kashima and Callan, 1994). As an employee, an individual identity’s with a larger entity through which one gains pride and feeling of being part of something significant, tying an individual's prestige directly to the prestige of his or her employer. Typically, the company is seen as a provider of security and welfare. To a large extent, loyalty to the company surpasses the family bond. The core principles of Japanese employment model is the so-called ‘‘THREE SACRED TREASURES’’ (sanshu no jingi) of Japanese management. 1)The lifetime/long term employment system (shushin koyo) The terms â€Å"long-term† or â€Å"permanent† employment are used synonymously to describe lifetime employment, which was established at many companies during the period of high economic growth during the 1960s. The concept of lifetime employment emerged as a result of the peculiar aspects of Japanese employer-employees relations that were supported by narrow labour markets during the post-w ar period when Japan experienced a labour shortage for the first time in her industrial history. This system developed and was established at many large and mid-sized companies during this period of high economic growth. With rapid technology innovation and expansion of businesses, large-sized companies hired inexperienced manpower directly from the labour market and through in-house training and development programs these workers developed various skills and techniques. (2)The system of seniority-based wage and promotion (nenko joretsu) Here status and seniority are tied to length of service, rather than to job duties or merit. According to this system, the decisive factors determining pay are the length of service, age and educational background, not the work performed. The system goes hand-in-hand with the lifetime employment. Traditionally, the seniority-based reward system had two different aims. The first was to advance an employee’s career and provide financial compensation based on a broad social considerations and personal qualifications, such as the age and education level of employees. The second was to make extensive use of non-cash fringe benefits for employees and their families. 3)Enterprise unionism (kigyobetsu rodo kumiai) Another important characteristic of Japanese employment relations are enterprise-based unions. In Japan, unions are organized at the enterprise level, collectively bargain with a single employer, and conclude collective agreements on the enterprise level. According to Inohara: â€Å"Enterprise-wide unionism specifically expresses the workplace in terms of union mem bership. In principle, it organizes all regular employees of a company indiscriminately into one union, i. e. it is an employee organization on the basis of where they work (company) and not what they do (occupation or skill). Such a labor union is not dominated by the company; it represents the workforce, and as such, enjoys appropriate prestige and benefits provided by the company. Relations between management and the union are between insiders, namely, all the members of the union are company employees. Intervention by outsiders such as industrial and national labor organizations, outside business agents, or attorneys is not tolerated. † THE CHANGING NATURE OF JAPANESE EMPLOYMENT SYSTEM Sources of change Prior to summer of 1997, the Japanese system guaranteed easy access to low-cost capital and raw materials was supplied by a loyal and devoted labour force (at the time of labour shortage) which facilitated market expansion. However, the market became saturated and the economy slowed down, these competitive advantages were turned into liabilities. Keiretsu banks found themselves saddled with bad debts from group companies, inter-group purchasing became barriers to cost reduction, and excess size of an albeit loyal labour force was viewed as a burden to struggling companies. Japanese companies were also reacting to the information revolution and were left behind by their American counterparts. Although, most Japanese companies have found change at a quick pace too much to ask they had to adopt foreign practices and policies in order to survive. Deregulation is another force for change. It has made Japanese markets more accessible to competitors, foreign as well as domestic. In heretofore-protected industries like financial services, distribution and agriculture few firms are prepared for the onslaught of competition and uncertainty (Lincoln and Nakata, 1997). The aging population also has clear implications for corporate employment relation practice. With an aging workforce, the permanent employment and seniority system burdens firms with rising numbers of higher-paid and less productive workers. Previously, these systems were more suitable to employers, since the steep seniority escalator resulted in less payment for the relatively young workforce and the permanent employment norm reduced the uncertainties and costs of high staff turnover. Furthermore, the transition to a service economy combined with socio-cultural and socio-economic changes has had a profound effect on Japan's employment institutions. Even though leading-edge manufacturers are still competitive, their contribution to Japanese domestic employment and income is shrinking, in favor of the emerging service sector as the next great engine of jobs and wealth. Employment practices of sales and service firms are different from those of manufacturing. Their younger workforce is more mobile, less committed to work and the firm. Furthermore, since the organization of work in service firms is less team based, individual performance is more easily evaluated. Also, occupational skills are valued over firm-specific skills, so that broad job experience becomes the main driver of wages and performance rather than loyalty to one employer (Debroux, 1997; Lincoln and Nakata, 1997; Ornatowski, 1998). Lifetime employment One of the distinct features of the Japanese employment relations system is lifetime employment. Japanese workers joins companies at a young age, and spend a larger portion of their life in the company compared to other countries. The figure below can show that Japanese workers in terms of length of service, average number of years and median years compared to workers in other countries was much higher . Table1: Comparative Length of Service [pic] Source: Adopted from Current Labour Economy in Japan. Notes: 1, 2 and 3: Average length of service based on OECD Report, 1995. Other figures from the respective country. From the middle of the economic crisis till 1990, there have been ongoing debates to reform the lifetime employment system. Company attitudes were gradually changing due to increasing labor costs, employees’ age, a growing rise in the number who unable to cope with the rapidly developing new technology and changing globalized markets. Employers now need staff with readily usable skills and workers who have specialized abilities in order to respond to stiffer competition and handle more complex specialized operations. The older workers employed with lifetime contacts are not able to adjust rapidly to new developing technologies typified by information technology. Many companies have begun to adopt more diverse hiring practices over past few years, taking on experienced employees in mid-career in addition to new graduates. Employers prefer to hire mid-career and non-regular workers both in large, mid- and small-sized organizations. The rate of hiring of midcareer workers in non-clerical positions is higher in small businesses. Hiring mid-career workers, on the one hand, minimizes training costs and, on the other hand, companies get workers with ready-made skills who can work with developing technology. In fact, employers are now seeking staff with readily available skills and workers with specialized abilities who can handle more complex and specialized operations so they can respond to stiffer competition. Many employers are arguing for some partial adjustment to the prevailing practice of lifetime employment. The table below shows how companies are changing their attitude toward lifetime employment practices: Table 2: Companies changing their attitude toward lifetime employment practices: Attitude Response |Percentage | |Partial adjustment is inevitable |40. 0 | |Will basically maintain the practice |36. 1 | |Fundamental review is necessary |15. 3 | |Do not have lifetime mployment practice |5. 2 | |No response |3. 3 | Source: Labour Situation in Japan and Analysis 2004-2005, p. 26. According to the Ministry of Labour Special Survey, about 30 percent of all employees in Japan are non-regular as of 2000 (Japan Labor Bulletin, 2000: 1–2). According to the table below, the r ecent trend Table 3 : Changes in Regular and Non-Regular Employees during Recession (10,000) |1985–6 |1991–4 |1997–2001 | | |Regular Non-Regular |Regular Non-Regular |Regular Non-Regular | |Female |24 |15 |47 |64 |-82 |151 | |Male |16 |2 |119 |10 |-89 |55 | |Total |40 |17 |166 |74 |-171 |206 | Source: Wakisaka (2002). towards using non-regular workers is in contrast to the traditional pattern in which non-regular workers decreased during recession while regular workers maintained their jobs due to their skills accumulated through in-house training. In 1997–2001, the number of regular employees in Japan sharply declined by 1. 71 million, while the number of non-regular workers increased by 2. 06 million. The fact that non-regular workers are replacing regular workers indicates that Japanese companies have changed their traditional values of high skills based on in-house training and employees’ loyalty supported by lifetime employment, instead considering labour costs and the flexibility of the labour market. As a Joint Labour Management 1998 survey documents, workplace morale has declined as the number of non-regular workers has increased (Morishima, 2001). Seniority-based Pay and Promotion System Another important characteristic of Japanese employment relations system is the seniority-based pay and promotion system. To understand the main concept behind the seniority-based wage system it is important to know the wage theory presented by Koike. year) where wage refer to: a) salaries that increase in accordance with age and length of service; b) the rewards that are not paid on the basis of the job performed; and c) that are unique to Japan. The main salary determination factor s are seniority and the number of years the employee has been working at the company. Salary increase based on seniority is a general labour practice, and not a â€Å"system. † Japanese companies rarely evaluate academic degrees such as doctorate. Yamanouchi and Okazaki-ward had tried to explain the history and practices of the evaluation system in Japan. They argue that Japanese companies had gone through different turning points in the evaluation system for the sake of pay and promotion. The American system of job analysis and job classification was introduced as a modern, rational management system to rebuild Japanese management in the 1950s which marked the first turning point in the Japanese system. The second turning point came between the 1960s and 1970s when companies introduced a competency-ranking system which almost 64 percent of the organizations followed until 1974. The third restructuring occurred in the 1980s when the competency-ranking system did not work effectively due to the effect of an increase in the value of yen; globalize business activities, deregulation, the maturation of the economy, and an aging workforce. Keeping senior employees became more costly than employing younger employees, particularly those over 40 years old in 1990 due to the recession. This was driven by the need to cut cost. In recent years, growing numbers of companies are clearly evaluating ability and performance over tenure and age in salary decision. Since the early 1990s, some companies have introduced a system of job ability-based wages focusing individual worker performance over one year compared with goals set at the beginning. This new system is quite close to a true performance-based pay system. It has been termed â€Å"Annual Salary System† and has been introduced by about 10 percent of large companies. This system is primarily used for managers and general managers, not for lower level employees. The monetary benefits to employees, if any at all, are typically small (Debroux,1997; Lincoln and Nakata, 1997; Ornatowski, 1998). The attempt to shift to performance pay shows the dilemma between companies who worry that the resulting inequities will destroy morale and unity. Besides, most companies may be do not like to see younger people supervise older ones. Also, there are fears that individual merit pay will ruin the Japanese system of team-based production, where stronger team members assist weaker ones for the good of the performance of the team as a whole (Lincoln and Nakata, 1997). The continuities in the Japanese employment systems are as striking as the changes, especially when one looks at the depth and length of the economic recession. Based on data from 1,618 firms, Morishima (1995) highlights three different types of attitudes and actions of firms toward employment system reform. One group of companies tries to change their wage system from seniority based to performance based and these firms try at the same time to use the external labor market to recruit workers. Although they represent the highly publicized trend away from traditional Japanese employment practices, these companies only make up 10. 8% of the sample. Most firms (56. %) have retained the traditional employment system representing the majority force of continuity. A third group (32. 4 %) shows a mixed picture consisting of firms that are reforming the wage system, while maintaining long-term employment practices. These findings highlight the striking resilience of traditional practices as well as some important changes. Enterprise Unions Japanese unions are organized on an enterprise basis, with only permanent, fulltime employees of the company eligible to join the union. This structure has led Japanese unions to defend job security and the working conditions of their members through company-based mechanisms. The union’s chances of success through such mechanisms is, at this time, somewhat diminished. This has led unions to focus on job security rather than pay increases, which has lessened their appeal to young people, and has alienated unorganized nonregular workers in large companies and the vast majority of employees in small companies (Debroux 2003a). With the decline of lifetime employment and the increase in the number of non-regular workers, not only enterprise unions but the entire union movements are now declining. For example, the unionization rate (union members divided by number of employees) declined from 34. 7 percent in 1975, to 28. 9 percent in 1985, 23. 8 percent in 1995 and 22. percent in 1998 (Shirai, 2000: 20). In addition, the role of conflict resolution traditionally played by Japanese enterprise unions, also declined despite the formal existence of enterprise unions. Recently, individual labour–management conflicts have increased. For example, the num ber of cases concerning workplace disputes over daily employment and working conditions, dealt with by the Labour Standards Inspection Offices, increased to 20,000 in 1994. Similarly, the number of cases of consultation that the Labour Administration Offices and the Women’s and Young Workers Offices deal with have also exceeded 75,000 and 10,000, respectively (Shirai, 2000: 119). It is important to note that since the economic contribution of temporary workers is increasing, it’s necessary to recognize their representation in the labor market by protecting their rights. With increased cost-cut measures adopted by employers due to rising competition, there has been a substantial increase in the employment of non-regular workers in the last few years. The unionization rate of these workers is only three percent. At the same time, employers have become increasingly interested in performance-based systems on the enterprise level. These developments should influence the future role of unions in the regular wage negotiation process. CONCLUSION This report has explored the changes taking place in ER in Japanese firms. A period of sustained economic decline, increased global competition, a rigid employment and business system, a banking system on the verge of collapse, and the occurrence of the Asian financial crisis meant that the 1990s was a catalyst for change and regeneration. While these factors were influential in providing the impetus for change, other factors, such as the aging population, declining birth rates, and the short-term horizons of younger workers, were also important. Overall I have found evidence of the flexibility in distinctive features of Japanese employment relations system, which are lifetime employment, seniority based system and enterprise-based unions. The number of employees under lifetime contract is now in decline as Japanese companies have started to adopt more diverse hiring practices, such as: taking on experienced employees in mid-career in addition to new graduates, recruiting contingent workers e. g. part-time and other types of non-regular employees has overtaken employment of lifetime employees in recent years. In 1982, 84% of full-time workers were â€Å"regular† workers— with long-term careers and good fringe benefits at one company. But 20 years later, the regular workers’ share had shrunk to 68%. Companies attitudes towards seniority based system have been changing as well. Many companies have changed their wage systems to reflect individual performance. They are now adopting â€Å"PAY SYSTEM BASED ON PERFORMANCE,† which represented by the annual salary system and â€Å"JOB-BASED SALARY,† which mainly focusing on people occupying managerial positions or higher. An increasing number of companies are putting a stop to their practice of periodic salary raises based on seniority and introducing systems in which bonuses are influenced by evaluations. Another important characteristic of Japanese employment relations are enterprise-based unions, which is now under threat because of the decline of lifetime employment and the increase in the number of non-regular workers. Moreover, given today’s strict economic climate in which wage increases are difficult, the SHUNTO is shifting from its former policy of seeking wage increases as the highest priority to â€Å"job security and maintenance. † No matter whether it regards performance pay, the elimination of management titles, or reductions of the workforce, the change of employment practices in Japanese companies seems to be slow and incremental, carefully avoiding unexpected or shocking breaks with the past. Furthermore, they are not changing the typical Japanese model completely, trying to make it more effective by modifying them according to the new trend of highly competitive globalized market. REFERENCES Bamber. G. J, Lansbury R D, & Walies. N . (2006) International and Comparative Employment Relations: Globalization and the developed market economies. 4th ed. SAGE Publications Ltd, London. BENSON, J and DEBROUX , P (2004) The Changing Nature of Japanese Human Resource Management: The Impact of the Recession and the Asian Financial Crisis. vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 32–51. Int. Studies of Mgt. & Org. [online] Available from: Xpert HR. http://xperthr. co. uk [Accessed 28 April 2009] Benson, J. and Debroux, P. – The Changing Nature of Japanese HRM: The Impact of the Recession and the Asian Financial Crisis. International Studies of Management and Organization, 34 (1) 2004: pp. 32-51 Selmer, J. (2001) Human resource management in Japan :Adjustment or transformation? Volume: 22 Issue: 3 Page: 235 – 243, MCB UP Ltd [online] Available from: Emerald. http://www. emerald-library. com/ft [Accessed 10 May 2009] Hattori, R and Maeda, E. (2000) The Japanese Employment System (Summary). Issue-January 2000, Bank of Japan Monthly Bulletin, [online] Available from: www. boj. or. p/en/type/ronbun/ron/research/data/ron0001a. pdf [Accessed 10 May 2009] Hyeong-ki Kwon (2004) Japanese Employment Relations in Transitio,. Economic and Industrial Democracy 2004; 25; 325, [online] Available from: SAGE . http://eid. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/25/3/325 [Accessed 10 May 2009] Adhikari, R (2005) National Factors and Employment Relations in Japan. Japan Institute of Labour Policy and Training, Tokyo, [on line] Available from: http://www. jil. go. jp/profile/documents/Adhikari. pdf [Accessed 10 May 2009] Kambayashi, R & Kato, T (2008) The Japanese Employment System after the Bubble Burst: New Evidence, [online] Available from: http://faculty. hicagobooth. edu/brian. barry/igm/TheJapaneseEmploymentSystem. pdf [Accessed 10 May 2009] Economist (2005) The sun also rises, [online] Available from: http://www. economist. com/displaystory. cfm? story_id=4454244 [Accessed 10 May 2009] Economist (1998) Fallen Idols, [online] Available from: http://www. economist. com/displaystory. cfm? story_id=4454244 [Accessed 10 May 2009] Ornatowski, G. K (1998) The End of Japanese-Style Human Resource Management? Sloan Management Review, [online] Available from: http://sloanreview. mit. edu/the-magazine/articles/1998/spring/3937/the-end-of-japanesestyle-human-resource-management/ [Accessed 10 May 2009]

Coral Divers Resport

Mr. Jonathan Greywell is contemplating a business decision in which there are four realistic options. He is the owner of Coral Divers Resort, located in the Bahamas on the island of New Providence. He caters to customers looking for a resort package that includes diving. This case discusses a decline in revenues for the three-year period of 2005-2007. His options include: selling the resort, partnering with another business, focusing on higher margin business, or improve his current business to be more competitive. Selling Coral Divers ResortThe most significant reason to sell the business is the declining revenues. However, Greywell would need to find another means of income such as another business venture or a new location for a similar business. Greywell could have a business valuation done, but since his equity in the business is low, he would not have much left over to start another business venture. Greywell has built a lifestyle around the Coral Divers Resort business and enj oys it. At this time, I recommend that he focus on his other options and keep the business. Partnering with Rascals in ParadiseEntering into a business agreement with Rascals in Paradise would change the direction of Greywell’s business to a more family-oriented business. In addition to rebranding Coral Reef Resort to target families, there would be additional capital improvement expenses. Cottage renovations would be nearly $50,000. The addition of a playground is estimated at $15,000. The wages expense to hire a chef could vary based on the quality and experience of the chef. However, making use of an existing facility such as the kitchen and dining room would add an additional stream of revenue and would help to offset the additional costs.In my opinion is it unrealistic for the resort to be at 100% capacity on a regular basis. Therefore, if we look at realistic numbers using historical Coral Reef Resort data, we can reasonably predict a 90% capacity in the high season â⠂¬â€œ an improvement over the current 70%. The revenue generated from this increase is approximately $100,000. Another factor to consider in making this decision is whether Rascal’s is worth the 30% commission. The fees for families (i. e. more people per room, etc. ) when compared to the operation expenses keep the profit margin the same with the added benefit of a unique identity in the market.Higher Margin Adventure Diving Adventure diving generates a higher margin and therefore it is a good idea for Greywell to consider adding it to the mix of dive offerings. However, it cannot be considered without weighing the risks involved. Coral Divers Resort has an excellent reputation and careful consideration should be given as to how to protect this intangible asset. Adventure dives would need specifically trained and experienced dive masters. Simply training existing employees might pose an additional risk since they aren’t too excited about diving with sharks and also la ck experience that might be helpful for safety issues.Within an hour’s distance away, competitors are already a part of this market and bringing in $115 per adventure dive which is $50 above the regular dive experience. An additional $600 per week can be earned on two days per week with an average of 6 customers each of those days. Despite hiring or training costs and additional $31,200 in revenue can be generated, after the expenses for shark food and the special dive suit. Perhaps more adventure dive business is possible, yet this estimate would need to remain conservative until the demand can be established and adjustments made accordingly.Improving Existing Coral Divers Resort Greywell should look at running the business more efficiently to see where he can lower expenses such as operating costs and both fixed and variable costs. However, improved efficiency alone will solve Greywell’s current problem of reduced revenue. He needs to be looking at additional revenue sources by bringing in more customers for existing business or new offerings. While it is a good benefit to customers to get free services such as afternoon rides, many of those customers would also pay to go.If he had an average of 9 free-ride customers per week pay only $25 for the ride, he would generate another $225 per week in revenue. He could add a box lunch for purchase, a snack package, or a cocktail option. Having more offerings will help to increase revenue. Although I don’t expect these food and beverage items on the boats to bring in much revenue and could be more work for too little reward. Greywell would certainly not want to be distracted from his core business. Conclusion Greywell should go with the Rascals in Paradise partnership. They can help rebrand and market the resort driving up occupancy rates.While increasing profits through occupancy and additional revenue streams are a positive move, Greywell will still need to solve his issue of high debt in orde r to make the renovations needed. In addition, he should already be running the business efficiently and regularly seeking out ways to maintain a high level of efficiency. I would not recommend that Greywell enter into the Adventure Diving segment of the business under the Coral Divers Resort name. The risks of injury are too high and an accident can have a very adverse effect on the business reputation.Also, in my opinion, a family business and an adventure business would serve different segments and have different branding messages. Having both under the same resort name will dilute the message and negatively impact the more profitable business segment. Instead, if Greywell feels passionate about pursuing the adventure business, I recommend he wait until his partnership with Rascals shows results and then begin a subsidiary or a separate business with its own branding that caters to the adventure diving market. This way, his businesses can feed each other and the marketing message s for each remain clear and focused.

Understanding the Proposed Benefits of Free Trade

This theory, known as import substitution industrialization, is largely considered ineffective for currently developing nations. 3] Disadvantages of tariffs[edit] The pink regions are the net loss to society caused by the existence of the tariff. The chart at the right analyzes the effect of the imposition of an import tariff on some imaginary good. Prior to the tariff, the price of the good in the world market (and hence in the domestic market) is Pworld. The tariff increases the domestic price to Ptariff. The higher price causes domestic production to increase from QSI to QS2 and causes domestic consumption to decline from QCI to This has three main effects on societal welfare.Consumers are made worse off because the consumer urplus (green region) becomes smaller. Producers are better off because the producer surplus (yellow region) is made larger. The government also has additional tax revenue (blue region). However, the loss to consumers is greater than the gains by producers and the government. The magnitude of this societal loss is shown by the two pink triangles. Removing the tariff and having free trade would be a net gain for An almost identical analysis of this tariff from the perspective of a net producing country yields parallel results.From that country's perspective, the ariff leaves producers worse off and consumers better off, but the net loss to producers is larger than the benefit to consumers (there is no tax revenue in this analysis, export tariffs, import quotas, and export quotas all yield nearly identical results. [l] Sometimes consumers are better off and producers worse off, and sometimes consumers are worse off and producers are better off, but the imposition of trade restrictions causes a net loss to society because the losses from trade restrictions are larger than the gains from trade restrictions.Free trade creates inners and losers, but theory and empirical evidence show that the size of the winnings from free trade are larger tha n the losses. [l] Trade diversion[edit] According to mainstream economic theory, the selective application of free trade agreements to some countries and tariffs on others can lead to economic inefficiency through the process of trade diversion. It is economically efficient for a good to be produced by the country which is the lowest cost producer, but this does not always take place if a high cost producer has a free trade agreement while the low cost roducer faces a high tariff.Applying free trade to the high cost producer (and not the low cost producer as well) can lead to trade diversion and a net economic loss. This is why many economists place such high importance on negotiations for global tariff reductions, such as the Doha Round. [l] Opinion of economists[edit] The literature analysing the economics of free trade is extremely rich with extensive work having been done on the theoretical and empirical effects.Though it creates winners and losers, the broad consensus among eco nomists is that free trade is a arge and unambiguous net gain for society. [6][7] In a 2006 survey of American economists (83 responders), â€Å"87. 5% agree that the U. S. should eliminate remaining tariffs and other barriers to trade† and â€Å"90. 1% disagree with the suggestion that the U. S. should restrict employers from outsourcing work to foreign countries. â€Å"[8] Quoting Harvard economics professor N.Gregory Mankiw, â€Å"Few propositions command as much consensus among professional economists as that open world trade increases economic growth and raises living standards. â€Å"[9] Nonetheless, uoting Professor Peter Soderbaum of Malardalen University, Sweden, â€Å"This neoclassical trade theory focuses on one dimension, i. e. , the price at which a commodity can be delivered and is extremely narrow in cutting off a large number of other considerations about impacts on employment in different parts of the world, about environmental impacts and on culture. [1 0] Most economists would agree that although increasing returns to scale might mean that certain industry could settle in a geographical area without any strong economic reason derived from comparative dvantage, this is not a reason to argue against free trade because the absolute level of output enjoyed by both â€Å"winner† and â€Å"loser† will increase with the â€Å"winner† gaining more than the â€Å"loser† but both gaining more than before in an absolute level.In the classic text An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Wealth of Nations), namely, in the passage â€Å"Of Restraints upon the Importation from Foreign Countries of such Goods as can be Produced at Home† economist Adam Smith describes reasons for allowing free trade.